Youth
Aristotle was born in Stagira, cities in the region Chalcidice, Thracia, Greece (formerly including central Macedonia region) in 384 BC. His father was the personal physician of King Amyntas of Macedon. At the age of 17 years, Aristotle became a pupil of Plato. Later he rose to become a teacher at the Academy of Plato in Athens for 20 years. Aristotle left the Academy after Plato's death, and became a teacher of Alexander of Macedon. When Alexander the ruling in the year 336 BC, he returned to Athens. With the support and assistance from Alexander, he later founded his own college named the Lyceum, which he led until the year 323 BC.
Contribution and work of
Aristotle's philosophy developed at the time he headed the Lyceum, which includes six written works that discuss the problem of logic, which is regarded as works of the most important, in addition to its contribution in the field of Metaphysics, Physics, Ethics, Politics, Medicine and Natural Sciences.
In the field of natural science, he was the first to collect and classify biological species systematically. His work illustrates the trend will be critical analysis, and the search for natural laws and the balance of nature. Plato stated the theory of ideal forms of things, while Aristotle explained that the material is not possible without a form because he was (existed). He further stated that the material forms a perfect, pure or final form, is what is claimed as theos, which is in the Greek sense is now considered to mean God.
Aristotelian logic is a system of deductive reasoning (deductive reasoning), which even today is still regarded as the foundation of every lesson of formal logic. However, in his scientific research he also realized the importance of observation, experimentation and inductive thinking (inductive thinking).
In the field of politics, Aristotle believed that the ideal form of politics is a combination of forms of democracy and monarchy.
Because the vast scope of the works of Aristotle, he considered it can be contributed to the encyclopedic scale, which covers contributions to the fields so diverse as Physics, Astronomy, Biology, Psychology, Metaphysics (eg the study of principles and ideas of the beginning - basic idea of nature), formal logic, ethics, politics, and even the theory of rhetoric and poetry.
[edit]
Influence
Although most of the developing science was more an explanation of the things that make sense (common-sense explanation), many theories that lasted almost two thousand years old. This happens because these theories because it is considered reasonable and in line with the thinking of society in general, although later it turned out that these theories totally wrong because it is based on assumptions wrong.
It could be argued that Aristotle was influential in Western thought and religious thought in general. Alignment of Aristotle with Christian theology by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, with Jewish theology of Maimonides (1135 to 1204), and the theology of Islam by Ibn Rusyid (1126 to 1198). For medieval man, Aristotle was not only regarded as an authoritative source of logic and metaphysics, but also regarded as the main source of knowledge, or "the master of those who know", as then said Dante Alighieri.
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Monday, 28 September 2009
Thursday, 26 March 2009
Eugene Dubois
Eugene Dubois was the first person to ever deliberately search for fossils of human ancestors. Only a handful of fossil humans had already been discovered, and those were by chance. In a remarkable story of dedication and luck, Dubois succeeded in his unlikely quest.
Eugene Dubois was born in the town of Eijsden in the Netherlands in 1858. As a boy he was fascinated by natural history, a pursuit encouraged by his pharmacist father. An excellent student, he studied medicine and graduated as a doctor in 1884. Two years later he was appointed an anatomy lecturer at Amsterdam University, and married in the same year. The following year, he gave it up to go to the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, to look for fossils of human ancestors.
No one is quite sure why Dubois threw up a good job to travel half way around the world on what most people would surely have considered a wild goose chase. Obviously, he must have been interested in human evolution. He had also discovered that he disliked his job as an anatomy lecturer, especially his teaching duties. Finally, Dubois apparently felt that his advisor, Max Furbringer, had claimed credit for some of Dubois' own ideas, and Dubois wanted to end their professional relationship. There was little or no merit to this; Furbringer seems to have always behaved correctly and even generously to Dubois. But throughout his life, Dubois seems to have had an almost fanatical fear of other scientists taking credit for his ideas.
He chose the East Indies because, like Darwin and many others, he felt that humans had evolved in the tropics. He believed that humans were closely related to gibbons, which are found in Indonesia. A fossil ape that had been found in India also encouraged him to believe that Asia would be a good place to look for hominid fossils. And, as a Dutchman, a Dutch colony like Indonesia was a convenient place for him to live and work.
Dubois joined the Dutch Army as a medical officer, and he and his wife and baby arrived at the island of Sumatra in December 1887. When he had spare time from his medical duties, he searched for fossils. Early results were promising, and the government assigned him two engineers and 50 forced labourers to help him, but the results were disappointing due to the difficult conditions. The region was densely forested without paths, water was short, one of the engineers was transferred because he was useless and the other one died, and many of his labourers ran away or were sick. Some fossils were found, but they were of fairly recent date.
Dubois decided prospects would be better in Java, and got himself transferred there in 1890. One reason for going there had been a human skull which a mining engineer had found at Wadjak in 1888. Dubois started searching in the same place, and found a second less complete skull. Following this, he started searching in more open areas, especially a site on the banks of the Solo River which proved productive. Once again, he had been assigned two engineers and a crew of convict labourers to help him. (This time the engineers were both competent and managed to stay alive.)
In September 1890, his workers found a human, or human-like, fossil at Koedoeng Broeboes. This consisted of the right side of the chin of a lower jaw and three attached teeth. In August 1891 he found a primate molar tooth. Two months later and one meter away was found an intact skullcap, the fossil which would be known as Java Man. In August 1892, a third primate fossil, an almost complete left thigh bone, was found between 10 and 15 meters away from the skullcap.
In 1894 Dubois published a description of his fossils, naming them Pithecanthropus erectus, describing it as neither ape nor human, but something intermediate. In 1895 he returned to Europe to promote the fossil and his interpretation. A few scientists enthusiastically endorsed Dubois' work, but most disagreed with his interpretation. Almost everyone agreed that the femur was effectively indistinguishable from a human femur, but it was widely doubted whether it had, as Dubois claimed, come from the same individual as the skullcap. Some French scientists cautiously accepted that Dubois might be right. German scientists tended to the view that the skullcap was that of a giant ape such as a gibbon, while English scientists tended to view it as a human, coming from either a primitive or a pathological individual, but there were plenty of other opinions. Many scientists pointed out similarities between the Java Man skullcap and Neandertal fossils.
Dubois vigorously defended his interpretation, responding to his critics, providing further information on the fossils, and travelling around western Europe to speak and display the fossils. He pointed out that while many experts considered the skull ape-like and many considered it human-like, this actually strengthened his argument that it was a mixture of both. As time went on, Dubois' position gained more support, although the fossils remained controversial.
Around 1900 Dubois ceased to discuss Java Man, and hid the fossils in his home while he moved on to other research topics. This may have been to protect his intellectual priority; Dubois had been furious when another scholar had obtained a cast of the skullcap and then proceeded to produce a detailed study which surpassed anything Dubois had done. With Dubois out of the argument and the fossils inaccessible, the controversy died down. In 1897 he was awarded an honorary doctorate in botany and zoology by the University of Amsterdam, and in 1899 became a professor there in crystallography, mineralogy, geology and paleontology. (This was not as impressive as it sounded; he was earning less than he had 10 years earlier as an anatomy lecturer).
Over the next few decades he performed research in a number of areas. In particular, he devoted much effort to understanding the relationship between body weight and brain weight. He eventually came up with a complicated scheme in which all animals had a certain degree of encephalization, which increased in jumps of two (so humans were 1, apes were 1/4, cats and dogs were 1/8, etc.). It was a pioneering approach, but Dubois' results were hopelessly flawed, based on a small amount of real data and a large amount of speculation and special pleading. Under this scheme, Java Man, especially if reconstructed with gibbon-like body proportions, had an index of 1/2, which placed it nicely in the gap between apes and humans. (Gould 1993)
It was not until 1923 that Dubois, under pressure from scientists, once again allowed access to the Java Man fossils. That and the discovery of similar fossils caused it to once again become a topic of debate. The first two Peking Man skulls were found in 1929 and three more in 1936. In the late 1930s, other pithecanthropine fossils were found in Java at Sangiran. It was clear to everyone else that all these fossils were very similar to Dubois' original find, but Dubois fiercely resisted this idea, claiming that they were all human in grade, while his, and only his, fossil filled the gap between humans and apes. In an effort to differentiate Java Man from these later finds, Dubois emphasized the apelike characteristics of his fossil, giving rise to the common myth that he had decided Java Man was just a gibbon, and had abandoned his claim for its intermediate status.
Dubois had officially retired in 1928 but remained scientifically active, and as stubborn as ever, until his death in 1940. In a eulogy, Arthur Keith accurately described him as
"... an idealist, his ideas being so firmly held that his mind tended to bend facts rather than alter his ideas to fit them."
ReferencesGould S.J. (1993): Men of the thirty-third division. In Eight little piggies. (pp. 124-37). New York: W.W.Norton. (an essay about Eugene Dubois' theories on Java Man)
Shipman P. (2001): The man who found the missing link: the extraordinary life of Eugene Dubois. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Theunissen B. (1989): Eugene Dubois and the ape-man from Java. Dordrecht,The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Read More..
Eugene Dubois was born in the town of Eijsden in the Netherlands in 1858. As a boy he was fascinated by natural history, a pursuit encouraged by his pharmacist father. An excellent student, he studied medicine and graduated as a doctor in 1884. Two years later he was appointed an anatomy lecturer at Amsterdam University, and married in the same year. The following year, he gave it up to go to the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, to look for fossils of human ancestors.
No one is quite sure why Dubois threw up a good job to travel half way around the world on what most people would surely have considered a wild goose chase. Obviously, he must have been interested in human evolution. He had also discovered that he disliked his job as an anatomy lecturer, especially his teaching duties. Finally, Dubois apparently felt that his advisor, Max Furbringer, had claimed credit for some of Dubois' own ideas, and Dubois wanted to end their professional relationship. There was little or no merit to this; Furbringer seems to have always behaved correctly and even generously to Dubois. But throughout his life, Dubois seems to have had an almost fanatical fear of other scientists taking credit for his ideas.
He chose the East Indies because, like Darwin and many others, he felt that humans had evolved in the tropics. He believed that humans were closely related to gibbons, which are found in Indonesia. A fossil ape that had been found in India also encouraged him to believe that Asia would be a good place to look for hominid fossils. And, as a Dutchman, a Dutch colony like Indonesia was a convenient place for him to live and work.
Dubois joined the Dutch Army as a medical officer, and he and his wife and baby arrived at the island of Sumatra in December 1887. When he had spare time from his medical duties, he searched for fossils. Early results were promising, and the government assigned him two engineers and 50 forced labourers to help him, but the results were disappointing due to the difficult conditions. The region was densely forested without paths, water was short, one of the engineers was transferred because he was useless and the other one died, and many of his labourers ran away or were sick. Some fossils were found, but they were of fairly recent date.
Dubois decided prospects would be better in Java, and got himself transferred there in 1890. One reason for going there had been a human skull which a mining engineer had found at Wadjak in 1888. Dubois started searching in the same place, and found a second less complete skull. Following this, he started searching in more open areas, especially a site on the banks of the Solo River which proved productive. Once again, he had been assigned two engineers and a crew of convict labourers to help him. (This time the engineers were both competent and managed to stay alive.)
In September 1890, his workers found a human, or human-like, fossil at Koedoeng Broeboes. This consisted of the right side of the chin of a lower jaw and three attached teeth. In August 1891 he found a primate molar tooth. Two months later and one meter away was found an intact skullcap, the fossil which would be known as Java Man. In August 1892, a third primate fossil, an almost complete left thigh bone, was found between 10 and 15 meters away from the skullcap.
In 1894 Dubois published a description of his fossils, naming them Pithecanthropus erectus, describing it as neither ape nor human, but something intermediate. In 1895 he returned to Europe to promote the fossil and his interpretation. A few scientists enthusiastically endorsed Dubois' work, but most disagreed with his interpretation. Almost everyone agreed that the femur was effectively indistinguishable from a human femur, but it was widely doubted whether it had, as Dubois claimed, come from the same individual as the skullcap. Some French scientists cautiously accepted that Dubois might be right. German scientists tended to the view that the skullcap was that of a giant ape such as a gibbon, while English scientists tended to view it as a human, coming from either a primitive or a pathological individual, but there were plenty of other opinions. Many scientists pointed out similarities between the Java Man skullcap and Neandertal fossils.
Dubois vigorously defended his interpretation, responding to his critics, providing further information on the fossils, and travelling around western Europe to speak and display the fossils. He pointed out that while many experts considered the skull ape-like and many considered it human-like, this actually strengthened his argument that it was a mixture of both. As time went on, Dubois' position gained more support, although the fossils remained controversial.
Around 1900 Dubois ceased to discuss Java Man, and hid the fossils in his home while he moved on to other research topics. This may have been to protect his intellectual priority; Dubois had been furious when another scholar had obtained a cast of the skullcap and then proceeded to produce a detailed study which surpassed anything Dubois had done. With Dubois out of the argument and the fossils inaccessible, the controversy died down. In 1897 he was awarded an honorary doctorate in botany and zoology by the University of Amsterdam, and in 1899 became a professor there in crystallography, mineralogy, geology and paleontology. (This was not as impressive as it sounded; he was earning less than he had 10 years earlier as an anatomy lecturer).
Over the next few decades he performed research in a number of areas. In particular, he devoted much effort to understanding the relationship between body weight and brain weight. He eventually came up with a complicated scheme in which all animals had a certain degree of encephalization, which increased in jumps of two (so humans were 1, apes were 1/4, cats and dogs were 1/8, etc.). It was a pioneering approach, but Dubois' results were hopelessly flawed, based on a small amount of real data and a large amount of speculation and special pleading. Under this scheme, Java Man, especially if reconstructed with gibbon-like body proportions, had an index of 1/2, which placed it nicely in the gap between apes and humans. (Gould 1993)
It was not until 1923 that Dubois, under pressure from scientists, once again allowed access to the Java Man fossils. That and the discovery of similar fossils caused it to once again become a topic of debate. The first two Peking Man skulls were found in 1929 and three more in 1936. In the late 1930s, other pithecanthropine fossils were found in Java at Sangiran. It was clear to everyone else that all these fossils were very similar to Dubois' original find, but Dubois fiercely resisted this idea, claiming that they were all human in grade, while his, and only his, fossil filled the gap between humans and apes. In an effort to differentiate Java Man from these later finds, Dubois emphasized the apelike characteristics of his fossil, giving rise to the common myth that he had decided Java Man was just a gibbon, and had abandoned his claim for its intermediate status.
Dubois had officially retired in 1928 but remained scientifically active, and as stubborn as ever, until his death in 1940. In a eulogy, Arthur Keith accurately described him as
"... an idealist, his ideas being so firmly held that his mind tended to bend facts rather than alter his ideas to fit them."
ReferencesGould S.J. (1993): Men of the thirty-third division. In Eight little piggies. (pp. 124-37). New York: W.W.Norton. (an essay about Eugene Dubois' theories on Java Man)
Shipman P. (2001): The man who found the missing link: the extraordinary life of Eugene Dubois. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Theunissen B. (1989): Eugene Dubois and the ape-man from Java. Dordrecht,The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Friday, 6 March 2009
Charles Darwin
From English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Charles Robert Darwin At the age of 51 years, Charled publishes new book The Origin of Species. At the age of 51 years, Charled publishes new book The Origin of Species. Born 12 February 1809 Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK Died 19 April 1882 (age 73) Downe, Kent, UK UK residence Citizens of the United Kingdom Field naturalist Alma Mater University of Edinburgh University of Cambridge Known on the Origin of Species Natural selection Royal Medal Award (1853) Wollaston Medal (1859) Copley Medal (1864) Religion Church of England, Agnostik after 1851. Charles Robert Darwin (born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, December 12, 1809 - died in Downe, Kent, England, April 19, 1882 at the age of 72 years) was a British naturalist who revolusionernya put the theory basis for the modern theory of evolution and the principle of lineage same (common descent) with a submit mechanism as natural selection. This theory is now considered as an integral component of biology (biology). She developed her interest in natural history when he initially studied medicine, and theology, at university. Marine travel to the world for five years on the ship HMS Beagle tulisan-writings of the next geological make a notable and renowned author. Observation biologisnya bring to the study of species transmutasi and he developed a theory of natural selection in 1838. Because fully aware that people who express ideas that are considered misguided such a great punishment, it is only his research to friends terdekatnya. But it forward with the research will be the emergence of various objections to the results. However, in 1858 the information that Alfred Russel Wallace also found a similar theory encouraged to do with the publication of the theory of Darwin. Book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life (usually abbreviated to become The Origin of Species) (1859) is his most famous until now. This book describes the evolution through the same lineage as the dominant scientific explanation of the diversity in nature. Darwin was a Fellow of the Royal Society, to continue research, and writing a series of books about plants and animals, including humans, and the prominent is The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. The last is a book about earthworms. As a sign of recognition of the severity Darwin, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, along with the William Herschel and Isaac Newton. Contents [hide] * 1 Life o 1.1 The small o 1.2 Travel with Beagle o 1.3 Career in science, the theory of the formation of o 1.4 Marriage and children o 1.5 The theory o 1.6 Origin Publishing book Usul-species and controversy * Note 2 * 3 See also [edit] Life [edit] The small Charles Darwin, the seven years, in 1816, a year before his mother suddenly died. Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, in the family home, the Mount House. He was the fifth child of six brothers from a wealthy doctor Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. Her grandfather, Erasmus Darwin the father of Josiah Wedgwood and his mother's side. Both come from the UK's leading family, the family Darwin - Wedgwood to support the Unitarian church. His mother died when Charles was still eight years old. When the following year he was in school in Shrewsbury School which is not so much, he lived in boarding school. Thanks to the property from his parents, Darwin and enjoy the comfort To have access to facilities of a good education. However, her father worried Darwin will be the future, because he just having fun with the hunt, play with the dog and mouse. His father worried that Darwin will bring the family shame. Although Darwin is interested in biology since early, for fun, his father, he took the study medicine. At 1825, after the past summer as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor in Shropshire, Darwin continue to Edinburgh University to study medicine. But he is hated brutality surgical practice so that he leave the studies. He learned how to preserve animals from John Edmonstone, a black slave who has been released, which told him stories about the interesting tropical forests in South America. In both, Darwin became active in the student organization for the naturalist. He became a zealous student of Robert Edmund Grant. Grant is a pioneer of the theory-theory pengemangan Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles theory grandfather, Erasmus, on examining the characteristics of evolution. Darwin to participate in research about the life cycle Grant marine animals in the Firth of Forth coast who find evidence for homologi, radical theory that all animals have similar organs and differ only in kompleksitasnya. In March 1827, Darwin gave a presentation to the Plinian Perhimpunan penemuannya about yourself that spore-spore black skin often found on oyster eggs is eggs-kind loan (skate Leech). He also lectures to follow Robert Jameson on the natural history, and learn about the geology stratigrafik and how to classify plants with memantu while working to develop a broad collection of the Museum of the University of Edinburgh. During his life and after his death, Charles Darwin as an internationally renowned scientist who is researching controversial topics. At 1827, his father is not happy because the child is not interested to become a doctor, register it secretly in a Bachelor of Arts program at Christ's College, Cambridge University, to prepare them to be pastor. This is a reasonable choice at the time when the Anglican clergy have the rather, and most of the naturalist in the UK at that time pastor who is considered part of the task they were "exploring the miracle-miracle of God's creation." In Cambridge, Darwin prefer to ride a horse and shoot from the study. Together cousin, William Darwin Fox, he drowned in the craze at that time to collect beetle race. Fox also memperkenalkannya Priest to John Stevens Henslow, professor botany, to obtain expert advice about the beetle. Then Darwin took classes in natural history Henslow, a student kesayangannya, and became known as "the person who walked with Henslow." When the test arrived, Darwin focused more attention on the study and get additional special class of Henslow in subjects of mathematics and theology. Darwin will be especially interested in writings William Paley, including arguments about the divine design in nature. In the exam-exam in January 1831, he succeeded well in theology and because he studied hard in classical studies, mathematics and physics, he appeared on the ranking of 10 out of 178 students who graduated. Residency claims require Darwin lived in Cambridge until June. Following the example and advice Henslow, he was not in a hurry to become a pastor. He was inspired by any posts Alexander von Humboldt, Personal narrative, and therefore he plans to visit Madeira Islands to study the natural history in the area of tropical sekelasnya with some friends after graduating. To prepare, take Darwin's geology class Priest Adam Sedgwick, a strong proponent of divine design, and in the summer to go with him to assist in the mapping layer (strata) in Wales. Darwin are doing their own research when stratanya planned to go to Madeira was canceled by the message that the colleague who will go with him had died, but when he returned home he received another letter. Henslow was Darwin to provide recommendations for positions that are not paid to be the assistant for Robert Fitzroy, captain HMS Beagle, in a two-year expedition to explore the coastline South America. This would give Darwin a valuable opportunity to develop his career as a naturalist. His father was against the trip, considered as a waste of time, but he was tricked by Josiah Wedgwood II, to approve participation of their children. Travel into this five-year expedition, which caused dramatic changes in many areas of science. [edit] Travel to the Beagle While investigating the HMS Beagle wild beaches South America, Darwin began to develop theories about the natural wonders in the surrounding areas. Darwin has been decided that the way his life has become for the church and the quiet life when he received a bid that is tempt. Darwin was invited to accompany Captain Robert Fitzroy in the ship HMS Beagle. At that time, has become a habit that ships have the assistant captain during the expedition ships that normally take place over many years. Because the position of Captain Fitzroy is high enough, only a 'gentleman' that can be pendampingnya. The Darwin nigrat terbukti useful. Although the expedition aims to map marine mempuat, Fitzroy secretly plan to search for evidence of creation as written in the Gospel. Ironically, Darwin elected by Fitzroy because Darwin is a prospective pastor, as well as blood ningratnya blessing. Beagle survey took place five years. Darwin spent two-thirds of the time for this menjelajani land. He's investigating the diverse geological, fossil and living organisms, and meet diverse people, both indigenous and colonial society. The methodology he collected a large number of specimens, many of them new to science. This reinforces reputation as a naturalist and make a pioneer in the field of ecology, especially the understanding of biokoenosis. Notes the length terincinya show karunianya to build theory and form the basis for their work in the future, and provides understanding antropologis social, political, the depth of the regions that dikunjunginya. In that voyage, Darwin read the book Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology (Principles of Geology), which describes how the geological processes as a result of the various stages during the long period, and writing letters to his family that he saw the forms of land "as if olah Lyell eyes have it ": it was plain to see from the plain-lamina (shingle) and the sheer scallop-shell in Patagonia as the beaches of Ascending. In Chile he experienced the earthquake records and the basics of sea shells that were above the high tide which shows that the land had Ascending; and even in places high in the Andes, he can collect shells, sea shells. He created the theory that coral atol, atol formed on the volcanoes of sinking, an idea that he be viewed when the Beagle investigate Cocos (Keeling) Islands. In South America he found fossil-fossil giant mammals that have been extinct, teermasuk megatheria and gliptodon in layers that do not show signs or katastrofi climate change. Occasionally he mengangggap them with similar species in Africa, but after sailing Richard Owen showed that the remnants that come from animals associated with the beings living in the same place. Argentina in two species of rhea have areas that separate but bertumpang up. Galápagos Islands in Darwin found that the mockingbird is different from one island to another island, and when to return to Britain kepadnya shown that the tortoise Galápagos Tortoise and birds Finch also vary depending on the species of each island that they huni. Animals berkantung Australia platipus kangaroo rat and the animals is a very strange that he thinks "People who do not believe ... may be said 'surely two of the work has a different'." He dibingungkan by what is seen, and ssementara in the first edition of The Voyage of the Beagle (Beagle Pelayaran in) it describes the distribution of species based on the ideas of Charles Lyell "centers of creation", in the edition, the edition of the Journal of this, he begin to imagine the use of Galápagos Islands fauna as evidence for evolution: "people may actually suspect that's a small number of native birds in this archipelago, one species has been taken and modified for the purposes of the different." Three indigenous missionaries returned by Beagle to Tierra del Fuego. They have diberadabkan in the UK for two years, but their relatives in Darwin's eyes look "wild", a little above the animals. Within a year, the missionaries had returned to their loud and primitive, but they were more like it and do not want to return to the civilized world. This experience and Darwin rejection of slavery and the treatment of various other human being who does not see elsewhere, such as poor treatment of indigenous people by the British colonist in Tasmania meyakinkannya that does not have any moral justification for treating people with bad based on the concept race. Now he argues that mankind is not too far from the animals, different from what is believed by friends to the believer. While in the ship, Darwin experienced seasick. In October 1833 he got a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, when back from the Andes mountains to Valparaíso, he fell ill and had to stay in bed for a month. Since 1837 Darwin repeatedly suffered from stomachache, vomiting, a severe ulcer, heart flutter, tremor and other symptoms. All these symptoms, especially mempengaruhinya the time he felt depressed, such as when attending meetings or dealing with the controversy about the theory. Darwin causes disease is not known at the time of his life, and various efforts to merawatnya not successful. Speculation recently mentioned that he was in South America due to Chagas disease infected insect bite, which caused many problems later. Other causes that may include problems psiko-biological and Ménière disease. [edit] Career in science, the theory of the formation of Main article for this section are: The Darwin Theory When still young, Charles Darwin joined the scientific elite. While in cruise, Henslow gently strengthen the reputation of former students to provide a number of naturalist terpilh access to the fossil samples and a copy of a copy-printed writings geological Darwin. When the Beagle returned on 2 October 1836, Darwin has become well known in scientific circles. He visited his family in Shrewsbury, and his father develop the savings that Darwin can be a scientist supported by the funds themselves. Darwin then went to Cambridge and Henslow blandish botanis that the description of the modern landscape that have dikumpulkannya. After that around Darwin to institutions in London to search for the best naturalist to describe the collection-the collection for publication in a timely manner. Charles Lyell to Darwin really excited to meet on 29 October and to Richard Owen memperkenalkannya an expert anatomy of leaves are rising. After the collection of fossil bones, the bones of the Darwin on Surgery of the Kingdom of his, Owen caused great shock to disclose that some of it comes from the rat and mouse-like animal that has a giant creep destroyed. This increase the reputation of Darwin. With the enthusiastic support Lyell, Darwin makalahnya convey that to the first geological Perhimpunan London on 4 January 1837, and said that the land South America are slowly Ascending. On the same day the Darwin presents examples of mammals and to burungnya Perhimpunan Zoologis London. Animals mammals was taken by George R. Waterhouse. Although the birds that seem like a new idea appears later, John Gould, an expert bird revealed that what Darwin presumed that as the "Wren", black birds, and Finch is quite different from the Galápagos Finch is everything, but each each species is different. The other in the Beagle, including Fitzroy telha also collect the birds and more careful with their records, to find possible Darwin's islands where each species was derived. Charles lives in London with his brother, Erasmus, a free thinker. At parties regale he met a number of Cendikiawan which holds that God has set a previous life with the laws of nature, rather than the creation-the creation of magic for a while. Friends of his brother, nn. Harriet Martineau is the author of a story-a story promoting a law-poor Whig Malthus. The scientific scene with ideas about transmutasi species that are associated with a controversial radical upheaval. Darwin will be more like friends who honored, the Cambridge professor, even though the ideas-ideas beyond their confidence that natural history must justify religion and social order. On 17 February 1837, Lyell using speech kepresidenannya in Perhimpunan Geographic to present the findings to determine the date Owen fossil fossil-Darwin, and inferensi shows that species of animals that have been pu nah is related to the species of which have now in the same place. At the same meeting that Darwin was selected to become members of the Council of that. He has been invited by Fitzroy to donate any posts in the Journal based on the records lapangannya as the natural history of the captain's report Beagle voyage. Now he drowned in books about the geology of South America. At the same time he speculate about transmutasi Note the Red Book in his telha started on the Beagle. A project that started getting reports of the experts about the collection published as a series of publication of Zoology of the Voyage HMS Beagle (Zoology Pelayaran of HMS Beagle), and Henslow using contact-contact to arrange delivery of £ 1000 from the Treasury to mensponsorinya. Darwin finished writing his Journal around 20 June when King William IV died and the Victorian era began. In mid July he started a note book "B" is a secret about transmutasi, and that the hypothetical in which each island's Galápagos Islands have any type of turtle-kuranya own, everything that comes from a species of turtle and had to adjust to the island -island in a different way that's different. Under pressure to arrange Zoology and edit the script-a script for his Journal, Darwin's health go down. On 20 September 1837 he was suffering "a heart throb" and go to rural areas to restore health. He visited Maer Hall where the invalid aunt diasuh by daughter remain single, Emma Wedgwood, and entertaining family relative with the stories about the journey. Uncle, Jos indicates a place in the land where Cinders disappeared under loam and said that it is all working earthworms. Darwin's ideas to have a conversation that disampaikannya to geological Perhimpunan on 1 November, on a topic that is very common on earthworms. He has been the official positions-positions that can seize the valuable time, but in March that, Whewell was merekrutnya as the Secretary of geological Perhimpunan. Darwin makes the pain of resting pressure job, and he went to study geology in Scotland. In the bright air, he visited Glen Roy to see the phenomenon known as "roads" that - a blunder - disebutnya as the beaches of Ascending. Choose marry cousin Charles, Emma Wedgwood. After total recovery, he kembail to her home in Shrewsbury. He was thinking about career and prospects of scientific and, therefore, is he prepared a list with two columns with the title "Married" and "Not Married." The list is entered under the column pro-perhikahan include "permanent assistant and friend in old age ... never better than a dog," while the list of the counter is "less money for books" and "loss of time which is very sad ". Consideration of the winning pro. He discussed this with his father's cousin ago went to visit Emma on 29 July 1838. He does not directly apply, but contrary to the advice his father, he told Emma ideas about transmutasi. While the mind and the work continued in London on msuim killed, many times he was sick. On 11 November he was back and apply for Emma, and again told him ideas-ideas. He received it, but write back and ask him to be reading from the Gospel of John about the love and follow the road which also states that "Whoever does not live in Me, he ... dicampakkan ago in a fire burned." Charles sends a warm, eliminating the concern, but Emma still worry that retrogression will be dangerous to the faith Charles hopes that they will meet again in life after death. [edit] Marriage and children Darwin in 1842 with sulungnya child, William Erasmus Darwin. On 29 January 1839, Darwin married cousin Emma Wedgwood at Maer in an Anglican ceremony that is set to comply with the Unitarians. After first living in Gower Street, London, this pair moved on 17 September 1842 to Down House in Downe (who is now open for public visits, Orpington in the south). Darwin family have ten children, three of them died in early age. Many of their grandchildren and their grandchildren, soon to be famous (see family Darwin - Wedgwood) * William Erasmus Darwin (27 December 1839-1914) * Anne Elizabeth Darwin (2 March 1841-22 April 1851) * Mary Eleanor Darwin (23 September 1842-16 October 1842) * Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin (25 September 1843-1929) * George Howard Darwin (9 July 1845-7 December, 1912) * Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin (8 July 1847-1926) * Francis Darwin (16 August 1848-19 September 1925) * Leonard Darwin (15 January 1850-26 March 1943) * Horace Darwin (13 May 1851-29 September 1928) * Charles Waring Darwin (6 December 1856-28 June 1858) Some of their children suffering from disease or weak body. Charles Darwin worried that this may be because the descendants of Emma away. This diungkapkannya-writings in any posts about bad consequences arising from the marriage between close relatives, and benefits of hybridization. [edit] Development of theories Main article for this section are: The development of the theory of Darwin Critics will worry because of the believer and the scientist, Darwin spent tens of years to develop the theory of evolution-theory, in general, and in secret. Darwin has been thinking about the evolution of ideas, that all species related to one another and have a "common ancestor" (derived from one lineage) and new species through mutation appears. But he is still curious about how the mechanisms that process occurs. Chance, he read any posts tulisal-Thomas Malthus. Malthus argued that human population increases faster than food production, causing the man to compete with one another for food and make memperebutkan benevolence futile. Darwin happy with using this mechanism to explain the theory. He wrote: "Man tends to increase in the level that is greater than how to survive. As a result, he sometimes must fight to survive, and natural selection will affect what is in this range." (Descent of Man, Ps.21) He connects with the findings of this case-finding of the species associated with the place, a developer of research animals, culture, and ideas about "natural selection legal" (Natural Selection). Towards the end of 1838 he was comparing the characteristics with the selection of the breeder according to the theory of natural selection from Malthus variants-the variants as "chance" so that "every part of the new structure is fully practiced and perfected," and assume that this is "part of most beautiful of my theory "about how the species was begun. Darwin is now a leading geolog among scientific elite among the clergy who is also the naturalist. Kuangan he is quite well established with a private income. He had a lot of work to do, write down the findings and theory-theory, and oversees the preparation of a series of writing a book that describes the Zoology collections-collection. He was sure the truth of evolution, but for a long period of time he realized that transmutasi species associated with the denial of God and with the agitator in the democratic attempt to overthrow the British public. Thus, the publication could threaten the reputation theory. Darwin is a lot of experiments with plants and various consultations with the breeder animals, breeder birds including pigeon and pig, while trying to find the answers to all the strong arguments that diantisipasinya when he presents the theory in public. When Fitzroy report published in May 1839, Journal Notes and note-Darwin get rave. Later that same year, the note itself was published, loud behavior and is now known as The Voyage of the Beagle (Beagle Pelayaran). In December 1839, when Emma being pregnant for the first time, Darwin fell ill again. [edit] Publishing book Usul-origin species and controversy On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection Title page On the Origin of Species edition year 1859 Author Charles Darwin Country United Kingdom English The subject of evolutionary biology Publisher John Murray Date published 24 November 1859 Darwin wrote about the evolution of ideas in the book Origins Species (The Origin of Species), which explains the theory of evolution. In the beginning, Darwin hesitate to publish the results of thought and the results observasinya a very radical, especially in those times, in the era of Victorian England. Over the years, he saves this idea and just talking with a colleague dipercayanya. One motivation for the Darwin finally published this book is the encouragement of Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace also wrote about their own ideas and send them similar to Darwin. Darwin dinasehatkan as soon as possible to complete the writings. In the year 1859, the book The Origin of Species is published, and the unexpected, to be hard and controversial behavior. Although Darwin did not discuss human evolution in overt, book challenges get harder, both from the scientific, and community, especially the church. In this difficult period, Darwin accompanied by one of his setianya, Thomas Huxley, who dijuluki "Darwin Bulldog." The telling and sharp, Huxley defend Darwin's theory of attacks. One episode is the famous debate between Huxley with Bishop Samuel Wilberforce. [edit] Notes Charles Darwin was born on the same day with Abraham Lincoln
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Friday, 20 February 2009
IR sokarno
By: Malay Encyclopedia Indonesia
Soekarno (Bung Karno) First President of the Republic of Indonesia, 1945 - 1966, adopted ideology of development 'stand on own feet'. Proklamator who was born in Blitar, East Java, 6 June 1901 with a stout mocking the United States and other capitalist countries: "Go to hell with your aid." Damnation with bantuanmu.
He invites state-Nega-ra developing (newly independent) together. Leader of the Revolution is successful mengge-lorakan revolutionary spirit of his people, and maintain the integrity of NKRI.
Figure art lover has a slogan put out a strong aspiration to bring the stars at the life of the people prosperous, fairly prosperous. Ideology of development of the men who came from the patrician Java (His father named Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo, tribe called Java and her mother Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai, Bali tribe), this when viewed from the book Pioneers in Development, about leaning follow the ideology of development was born the economists who do not know the dictionary is that the country must build a sponge to the West. But for them, never ask for legal foreign-aid request. With the rich Western countries, let alone to ask for help, would harm the needy (poor countries).
For the Bung Karno, who when called Kusno small, this seems no sweet story for the poorest countries that build the capital and foreign aid. All rush be the development of management and modern technology, the flow diverted - so that the poor become rich and overtake West - just sucker the poor wealth which makes the behind.
That is the Bung Karno successfully animate the spirit of revolution and take stand on its own feet for the nation, although not yet had time to make the people in the life of the prosperous. The concept of "stand on its own feet" is not up to the goal but at least succeeded in giving pride to the nation's existence. Rather than stand at the top of the foreign debts that the dependence and ketidakberdayaan (noekolonialisme).
Bung Karno childhood filled with the spirit of independence already. It was only a few years living with parents in Blitar. During the elementary school to graduate, he lives in Surabaya, in the boarding house Haji Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto, seasoned politicians of the Syarikat Islam. Then continue on HBS (Hoogere Burger School). While studying at HBS that he has the soul unite nasio-nalismenya. After graduating HBS 1920, he moved to Bandung, and continue to me-THS (Technische Hooge-school or High School Tekhnik now become ITB). He successfully achieved the title "Ir" on 25 May 1926.
Then, he formulated Marhaenisme teaching and establish PNI (Partai Nasional lndonesia) on 4 July 1927, with the goal of Indonesia Merdeka. As a result, the Netherlands, the colonists, menjebloskannya to Sukamiskin prison, on the 29 December 1929. Eight months later a new disidangkan. In defense, entitled 'Indonesia contest', with a brave expose it wrack the Netherlands, a nation that is more advanced.
Defense is to make the Netherlands more angry. So in July 1930, PNI was dissolved. After the free (1931), Bung Karno join the Partindo and memimpinnya. As a result, he was again arrested and removed to the Dutch Ende, Flores, year 1933. Four years later moved to Bengkulu.
After a long struggle, Bung Karno and Bung Hatta proclaim the independence of Indonesia on 17 August 1945. Previously, he also succeeded in formulating the Pancasila, which then becomes the basis (ideology) of the Republic of Indonesia. He seeks bond archipelago. He even tried channeling the nations in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Asia Africa Conference in Bandung in 1955 that later evolved into a movement Non Blok.
Rebellion G-30-S/PKI birth to the political crisis is very great. He also did not want to liquidate the PKI was accused by the students and the TNI as a manipulator of the general severity of homicide. Political atmosphere increasingly garbled. So that on 11 March 1966 he issued a warrant for Soeharto to control the situation, which was then known as the Center. But, this is the beginning of the kejatuh-annya. For the Center for the Soeharto dismiss PKI sympathy and seize the politicians and students, and 'seize' power. MPR reinforces Center is questioned and rejected the Soekarno and Soeharto as the official president.
Then Bung Karno 'imprisoned' in Yaso Wisma, Jakarta. Health continues to deteriorate. Finally, on Sunday, June 21 1970 he died in RSPAD. He be buried in Yaso Wisma, Jakarta and dimakamkan in Blitar, East Java near the tomb ibundanya, Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai. Excellency Yang Mulia Leaders of this revolution leave 8 children. Fatmawati get out of the five children, namely Guntur, Megawati, Rachmawati, Sukmawati, and Guruh. Hartini's got two children and that is Taufan Bayu. Meanwhile, from Ratna Sari Dewi, female descendants of the original Japanese named Naoko Nemoto have a daughter that is Kartika.
Orator Ulung
The first President of the Republic of Indonesia that is known as a skilful orator, who can hold a very furious about the national revolution, and the me-neokolonialis imperialism. He was also very confident in the strength of the mass, the strength of the people.
"I am nothing without the people. I am because of the people, I struggled because of the people, and I mouthpiece of the people, "said Bung Karno, in his work 'dig Api Pancasila'. An expression that is quite honestly a great orator.
Symptoms of Bung Karno is a rare phenomenon that impressed many people to invite. Kemahirannya use language with all kinds of style associated with virginity. This is reflected in the autobiography, and essay-length history books that include terjangnya kick.
He was a cen-dekiawan-kan who died hundreds of paper and some manuscript dra-ma, which could only ever dipentaskan in Ende, Flores. Collection of writings is diterbit-kan with the title "Flag of Diba-wah Revolution", two volumes. The first volume can be said the most interesting and most important because it represents itself as Soekarno Soekarno.
From the book setebal approximately 630 pages are any posts that begins the first of the year 1926, with the title "nationalist-me, Islamisme, and Marxisme" is the most interesting and probably most important as a point-decline in an effort to understand the Soekarno period of turbulence in the youth, a young people aged 26 years.
Kebesarannya in the middle, the skilful orator and author piawai, this always requires the support of others. He was not lonely and do not hold like a closed place.
At the end of his power, he often felt lonely. In autobio-grafinya organized by Cindy Adams, Bung Karno, the People's mouthpiece, said. "I did not sleep for six years. I can not sleep goods overnight. Sometimes, late at night, I call someone a close with such as Subandrio, Deputy Prime Minister and one said, 'Bandrio came to my place, I temani, tell to me something odd, mention a farce, berceritalah about what the origin not about politics. And if I fall asleep, forgive .... For the first time in my life I began to eat sleeping pills. I am tired. Too tired. "
In other parts of the mentioned, "Reviewed the overall position as president is not a relegation ubahnya the remote ... Often thought oranglah a change, not pikiranmu ... They participated in creating this lonely island in sekelilingmu. "
Anti-imperialism
On 17 May 1956. Bung Karno get honor speech delivered in front of the United States Congress. As New York Times reported (first page) the next day, in a speech that he was attacked with persistent colonialism.
"Struggle and sacrifice that we have done for our people's deliverance from the shackle of colonialism, has lasted from generation to generation for centuries. However, the struggle is still not finished. How is the struggle that can be completed if the millions of people in Asia and Africa are still under colonial domination, still can not enjoy freedom? "Squeal when Soekarno was.
Terrible, even though the speech was hard to oppose colonialism and imperialism, and quite critical of the Western countries, he got an extraordinary in the United States (U.S.).
A speech that shows the consistency of thought and attitudes that Bung Karno since the youth antikolonialisme. Especially in the period 1926-1933, the spirit antikolonialisme and anti-imperialism is already clear dikedepankannya.
It is very clear and decisive collective memory of colonialism pahitnya the foreign country that is rich. However, words and facts are two different things, and not infrequently for behind each other.
Soekarno penggagas nationalism and the other forced to wrestle in the "word" and "fact" that tried political knitted but are not easy, and not infrequently encountered deadlock.
Soekarno who diligently speaking, among others, about the size of the idea to unite the nationalist, religious, and Communist (1926) find that at all for behind, when he try to be a fact. Similarly, the idea that the size of the others: marhaenisme, or nationalism marhaenistis, who cooked dikonsepsikan in 1932. In fact, ideas about Pancasila.
Controversial figure
As a figure who has a firm principle, Bung Karno often regarded as controversial figure. So no wonder if he has his opponent and that is the overt mengritik and defend his view. In the political opponents in the country, he is considered to represent the politicians figure that abangan "less Islamic." They even menggolongkannya group leader as "the secular nationalist".
However, in the eyes Syeikh Mahmud Syaltut from Cairo, was the groundsman pancasila Qaida adzima min al-quwada dignity harir fii al-balad al-Islam (Leader of the movement's independence in the lands of Islam). In fact, Democracy Terpimpin, who debated in the country, it is praised by Syeikh Al-Azhar as, "lam yakun ila min shuratu asy syuraa Shara 'allatiy ja'alha al-Qur'an sya'ana min al-mu syu'un 'minin "(not only one illustration of the permusyawaratan made by Al-Quran as the basis for the believers).
When tensions heighten between Israel and Arab countries concerning the status of Palestine during the Arab press welcomes sensational Bung Karno, "Champion for Arab interests have arrived." Similarly, the Holy Throne Vatican gives three awards degrees to the president of the Republic of the majority is Muslim.
Indeed, the defense of the Bung Karno suppressed not only for his country but also other countries. That is why he was adored by the Arabs out of the middle attack Israel is tense. Bung Karno considered the leading Muslim nation. In fact, in their own country it is seen more often as a nation than the abangan santri.
In fact, how religiuskah Bung Karno? Is not he also in formulating the draft Pancasila moral Godhead the One God? Sila showed that the nation is a religious nation. Indonesia is a nation that recognizes the complex and the five religions. How can embrace the religious vision of five in a single sentence that is fundamental if the sentence does not understand the context of life in correctly?
In this elegant quoted in Clifford Geertz observed Islam (1982): "Style is a style of religious Soekarno Soekarno himself." How not? To Louise Fischer, Bung Karno had confessed that he at once Muslim, Christian, and Hindu. In the observer's eye, such as Geertz, such recognition is considered as "expansive style seems to want to embrace the whole world." Conversely, such expression in hemat-BJ Boland in The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia (1982) - "just a manifestation of religious feelings of most of the people of Indonesia, especially Java." Penghayatan for the spiritual East, the speech is "the courage to express various thoughts that may be accused of the believer formalis as bidah".
Political System
Soekarno have views on the political system that didukungnya is the most "appropriate" with "personality" and "culture" typical of a nation seems to the cooperation, mutual assistance and harmony. In rhetoric, it is a criticism "individualism" that he said was born of Western liberalism. Individualism is selfishness birth, and this is particularly reflected by contention antarpartai.
Then stir it Terpimpin Democracy. Soekarno engage in important political mass mobilization, it was sympathetic to the movements of anti-imperialism, and perhaps as a consequence, receive on the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) as a legitimate political actor, supporting terpimpin conception of democracy. So it was a political system that even anti-liberal and skeptical on political pluralism. He was to the "unity" for the "revolution".
In the 1950s, Indonesia was marked by political instability caused by the parliamentary system of democracy. This system is very liberal, and dominated by political parties of the parliament. Election 1955-which won four big power, Masyumi, Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI), Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and PKI-up to now is still seen as the most free elections and that was clean throughout the history of Indonesia. However, on the other side of the parliamentary system under which the party was often fall bangunnya cabinet led by prime minister. In addition, the history also notes that the national integrity constantly threatened by various separatist movements, ie, AT / IT, PRRI / Permesta, and so forth.
This fact makes the Soekarno suspicious because of the political party he considers Masyumi, and also the PSI, is involved in several areas of rebellion.
Then, return mendekritkan Soekarno of Indonesia in the 1945 Constitution because constituent failure to decide a new Constitution for India, the effects of sustained debate, especially between the secular nationalist forces and the strength of the foundation of Islam. ► e-ti/crs, from various sources Read More..
Soekarno (Bung Karno) First President of the Republic of Indonesia, 1945 - 1966, adopted ideology of development 'stand on own feet'. Proklamator who was born in Blitar, East Java, 6 June 1901 with a stout mocking the United States and other capitalist countries: "Go to hell with your aid." Damnation with bantuanmu.
He invites state-Nega-ra developing (newly independent) together. Leader of the Revolution is successful mengge-lorakan revolutionary spirit of his people, and maintain the integrity of NKRI.
Figure art lover has a slogan put out a strong aspiration to bring the stars at the life of the people prosperous, fairly prosperous. Ideology of development of the men who came from the patrician Java (His father named Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo, tribe called Java and her mother Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai, Bali tribe), this when viewed from the book Pioneers in Development, about leaning follow the ideology of development was born the economists who do not know the dictionary is that the country must build a sponge to the West. But for them, never ask for legal foreign-aid request. With the rich Western countries, let alone to ask for help, would harm the needy (poor countries).
For the Bung Karno, who when called Kusno small, this seems no sweet story for the poorest countries that build the capital and foreign aid. All rush be the development of management and modern technology, the flow diverted - so that the poor become rich and overtake West - just sucker the poor wealth which makes the behind.
That is the Bung Karno successfully animate the spirit of revolution and take stand on its own feet for the nation, although not yet had time to make the people in the life of the prosperous. The concept of "stand on its own feet" is not up to the goal but at least succeeded in giving pride to the nation's existence. Rather than stand at the top of the foreign debts that the dependence and ketidakberdayaan (noekolonialisme).
Bung Karno childhood filled with the spirit of independence already. It was only a few years living with parents in Blitar. During the elementary school to graduate, he lives in Surabaya, in the boarding house Haji Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto, seasoned politicians of the Syarikat Islam. Then continue on HBS (Hoogere Burger School). While studying at HBS that he has the soul unite nasio-nalismenya. After graduating HBS 1920, he moved to Bandung, and continue to me-THS (Technische Hooge-school or High School Tekhnik now become ITB). He successfully achieved the title "Ir" on 25 May 1926.
Then, he formulated Marhaenisme teaching and establish PNI (Partai Nasional lndonesia) on 4 July 1927, with the goal of Indonesia Merdeka. As a result, the Netherlands, the colonists, menjebloskannya to Sukamiskin prison, on the 29 December 1929. Eight months later a new disidangkan. In defense, entitled 'Indonesia contest', with a brave expose it wrack the Netherlands, a nation that is more advanced.
Defense is to make the Netherlands more angry. So in July 1930, PNI was dissolved. After the free (1931), Bung Karno join the Partindo and memimpinnya. As a result, he was again arrested and removed to the Dutch Ende, Flores, year 1933. Four years later moved to Bengkulu.
After a long struggle, Bung Karno and Bung Hatta proclaim the independence of Indonesia on 17 August 1945. Previously, he also succeeded in formulating the Pancasila, which then becomes the basis (ideology) of the Republic of Indonesia. He seeks bond archipelago. He even tried channeling the nations in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Asia Africa Conference in Bandung in 1955 that later evolved into a movement Non Blok.
Rebellion G-30-S/PKI birth to the political crisis is very great. He also did not want to liquidate the PKI was accused by the students and the TNI as a manipulator of the general severity of homicide. Political atmosphere increasingly garbled. So that on 11 March 1966 he issued a warrant for Soeharto to control the situation, which was then known as the Center. But, this is the beginning of the kejatuh-annya. For the Center for the Soeharto dismiss PKI sympathy and seize the politicians and students, and 'seize' power. MPR reinforces Center is questioned and rejected the Soekarno and Soeharto as the official president.
Then Bung Karno 'imprisoned' in Yaso Wisma, Jakarta. Health continues to deteriorate. Finally, on Sunday, June 21 1970 he died in RSPAD. He be buried in Yaso Wisma, Jakarta and dimakamkan in Blitar, East Java near the tomb ibundanya, Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai. Excellency Yang Mulia Leaders of this revolution leave 8 children. Fatmawati get out of the five children, namely Guntur, Megawati, Rachmawati, Sukmawati, and Guruh. Hartini's got two children and that is Taufan Bayu. Meanwhile, from Ratna Sari Dewi, female descendants of the original Japanese named Naoko Nemoto have a daughter that is Kartika.
Orator Ulung
The first President of the Republic of Indonesia that is known as a skilful orator, who can hold a very furious about the national revolution, and the me-neokolonialis imperialism. He was also very confident in the strength of the mass, the strength of the people.
"I am nothing without the people. I am because of the people, I struggled because of the people, and I mouthpiece of the people, "said Bung Karno, in his work 'dig Api Pancasila'. An expression that is quite honestly a great orator.
Symptoms of Bung Karno is a rare phenomenon that impressed many people to invite. Kemahirannya use language with all kinds of style associated with virginity. This is reflected in the autobiography, and essay-length history books that include terjangnya kick.
He was a cen-dekiawan-kan who died hundreds of paper and some manuscript dra-ma, which could only ever dipentaskan in Ende, Flores. Collection of writings is diterbit-kan with the title "Flag of Diba-wah Revolution", two volumes. The first volume can be said the most interesting and most important because it represents itself as Soekarno Soekarno.
From the book setebal approximately 630 pages are any posts that begins the first of the year 1926, with the title "nationalist-me, Islamisme, and Marxisme" is the most interesting and probably most important as a point-decline in an effort to understand the Soekarno period of turbulence in the youth, a young people aged 26 years.
Kebesarannya in the middle, the skilful orator and author piawai, this always requires the support of others. He was not lonely and do not hold like a closed place.
At the end of his power, he often felt lonely. In autobio-grafinya organized by Cindy Adams, Bung Karno, the People's mouthpiece, said. "I did not sleep for six years. I can not sleep goods overnight. Sometimes, late at night, I call someone a close with such as Subandrio, Deputy Prime Minister and one said, 'Bandrio came to my place, I temani, tell to me something odd, mention a farce, berceritalah about what the origin not about politics. And if I fall asleep, forgive .... For the first time in my life I began to eat sleeping pills. I am tired. Too tired. "
In other parts of the mentioned, "Reviewed the overall position as president is not a relegation ubahnya the remote ... Often thought oranglah a change, not pikiranmu ... They participated in creating this lonely island in sekelilingmu. "
Anti-imperialism
On 17 May 1956. Bung Karno get honor speech delivered in front of the United States Congress. As New York Times reported (first page) the next day, in a speech that he was attacked with persistent colonialism.
"Struggle and sacrifice that we have done for our people's deliverance from the shackle of colonialism, has lasted from generation to generation for centuries. However, the struggle is still not finished. How is the struggle that can be completed if the millions of people in Asia and Africa are still under colonial domination, still can not enjoy freedom? "Squeal when Soekarno was.
Terrible, even though the speech was hard to oppose colonialism and imperialism, and quite critical of the Western countries, he got an extraordinary in the United States (U.S.).
A speech that shows the consistency of thought and attitudes that Bung Karno since the youth antikolonialisme. Especially in the period 1926-1933, the spirit antikolonialisme and anti-imperialism is already clear dikedepankannya.
It is very clear and decisive collective memory of colonialism pahitnya the foreign country that is rich. However, words and facts are two different things, and not infrequently for behind each other.
Soekarno penggagas nationalism and the other forced to wrestle in the "word" and "fact" that tried political knitted but are not easy, and not infrequently encountered deadlock.
Soekarno who diligently speaking, among others, about the size of the idea to unite the nationalist, religious, and Communist (1926) find that at all for behind, when he try to be a fact. Similarly, the idea that the size of the others: marhaenisme, or nationalism marhaenistis, who cooked dikonsepsikan in 1932. In fact, ideas about Pancasila.
Controversial figure
As a figure who has a firm principle, Bung Karno often regarded as controversial figure. So no wonder if he has his opponent and that is the overt mengritik and defend his view. In the political opponents in the country, he is considered to represent the politicians figure that abangan "less Islamic." They even menggolongkannya group leader as "the secular nationalist".
However, in the eyes Syeikh Mahmud Syaltut from Cairo, was the groundsman pancasila Qaida adzima min al-quwada dignity harir fii al-balad al-Islam (Leader of the movement's independence in the lands of Islam). In fact, Democracy Terpimpin, who debated in the country, it is praised by Syeikh Al-Azhar as, "lam yakun ila min shuratu asy syuraa Shara 'allatiy ja'alha al-Qur'an sya'ana min al-mu syu'un 'minin "(not only one illustration of the permusyawaratan made by Al-Quran as the basis for the believers).
When tensions heighten between Israel and Arab countries concerning the status of Palestine during the Arab press welcomes sensational Bung Karno, "Champion for Arab interests have arrived." Similarly, the Holy Throne Vatican gives three awards degrees to the president of the Republic of the majority is Muslim.
Indeed, the defense of the Bung Karno suppressed not only for his country but also other countries. That is why he was adored by the Arabs out of the middle attack Israel is tense. Bung Karno considered the leading Muslim nation. In fact, in their own country it is seen more often as a nation than the abangan santri.
In fact, how religiuskah Bung Karno? Is not he also in formulating the draft Pancasila moral Godhead the One God? Sila showed that the nation is a religious nation. Indonesia is a nation that recognizes the complex and the five religions. How can embrace the religious vision of five in a single sentence that is fundamental if the sentence does not understand the context of life in correctly?
In this elegant quoted in Clifford Geertz observed Islam (1982): "Style is a style of religious Soekarno Soekarno himself." How not? To Louise Fischer, Bung Karno had confessed that he at once Muslim, Christian, and Hindu. In the observer's eye, such as Geertz, such recognition is considered as "expansive style seems to want to embrace the whole world." Conversely, such expression in hemat-BJ Boland in The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia (1982) - "just a manifestation of religious feelings of most of the people of Indonesia, especially Java." Penghayatan for the spiritual East, the speech is "the courage to express various thoughts that may be accused of the believer formalis as bidah".
Political System
Soekarno have views on the political system that didukungnya is the most "appropriate" with "personality" and "culture" typical of a nation seems to the cooperation, mutual assistance and harmony. In rhetoric, it is a criticism "individualism" that he said was born of Western liberalism. Individualism is selfishness birth, and this is particularly reflected by contention antarpartai.
Then stir it Terpimpin Democracy. Soekarno engage in important political mass mobilization, it was sympathetic to the movements of anti-imperialism, and perhaps as a consequence, receive on the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) as a legitimate political actor, supporting terpimpin conception of democracy. So it was a political system that even anti-liberal and skeptical on political pluralism. He was to the "unity" for the "revolution".
In the 1950s, Indonesia was marked by political instability caused by the parliamentary system of democracy. This system is very liberal, and dominated by political parties of the parliament. Election 1955-which won four big power, Masyumi, Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI), Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and PKI-up to now is still seen as the most free elections and that was clean throughout the history of Indonesia. However, on the other side of the parliamentary system under which the party was often fall bangunnya cabinet led by prime minister. In addition, the history also notes that the national integrity constantly threatened by various separatist movements, ie, AT / IT, PRRI / Permesta, and so forth.
This fact makes the Soekarno suspicious because of the political party he considers Masyumi, and also the PSI, is involved in several areas of rebellion.
Then, return mendekritkan Soekarno of Indonesia in the 1945 Constitution because constituent failure to decide a new Constitution for India, the effects of sustained debate, especially between the secular nationalist forces and the strength of the foundation of Islam. ► e-ti/crs, from various sources Read More..
Wednesday, 11 February 2009
The Religious Affiliation of Influential Scientist Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton: "Affiliation: Anglican, Heterodox; Newton was born into the Anglican church and publicly conformed to it." At about age 30 he came to believe "that Trinitarianism was a fraud and that Arianism was the true form of primitive Christianity. Newton held these views, very privately, until the end of his life. On his death bed he refused to receive the sacrament of the Anglican church." [Source: The Galileo Project] A detailed consideration of this subject is here: http://www.geocentricity.com/ba1/no77/newton-b.html
From: Michael H. Hart, The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Hart Publishing Company, New York City (1978), page 46:
Newton died in 1727, and was buried in Westminster Abbey [an Anglican church], the first scientist to be accorded that honor.From: Rich Deem, "Famous Scientists Who Believed in God", last modified 19 May 2005, on "Evidence for God from Science" website (http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/sciencefaith.html; viewed 5 October 2005):
In optics, mechanics, and mathematics, Newton was a figure of undisputed genius and innovation. In all his science (including chemistry) he saw mathematics and numbers as central. What is less well known is that he was devoutly religious and saw numbers as involved in understanding from the Bible God's plan for history. He did a lot of work on biblical numerology, and, though aspects of his beliefs were not orthodox, he thought theology very important. In his system of physics, God is essential to the nature and absoluteness of space. In Principia he stated, "The most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion on an intelligent and powerful Being."From: Raymond J. Seeger, "Newton, Biblical Creationist" in The Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, 35 (December 1983): pages 242-243 (http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1983/JASA12-83Seeger.html; viewed 26 September 2005):[Sources:] R. S. Westfall, Never At Rest (1985) or The Life of Isaac Newton (1994), A. R. Hall, Isaac Newton: Adventurer in Thought (1992), J. E. Force and R. H. Popkin, Essays on the Context, Nature and Influence of Isaac Newton's Theology (1990)
Isaac Newton... was devoutly religious in his search for God, puritanical in his morality, abstemious, scrupulous, austere, loveless and joyless. Nevertheless, his prestige forged a permanent link between science and government.Read More..Newton's masterpiece was in theoretical physics, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), an intellectual monument to mankind, a synthesis of grandeur... He established mathematical physics, e.g., fluid dynamics and acoustics. The Principia was written in Latin, its proofs were geometrical, despite his having invented fluxions, a form of calculus. On the contrary, the Opticks (1704) was written in English with experimental queries...
The young Newton did not aspire to ecclesiastical orders requisite for the mastership of a college. His theological interests, however, were not an aberration of old age. All his life he was a conforming member of the Anglican Church, although he had reservations about its Trinitarian doctrine. Although he appreciated its universalist humanitarianism, he was by no means a deist inasmuch as he believed in a personal God, omniscient and omnipotent, but, above all, immanent not only had He created the universe, but He keeps it under constant surveillance and intervenes in a providential way from time to time (e.g., paths of comets). Neither was Newton a Unitarian; he believed in Jesus Christ as the Messiah, the Son of God-not a mere man, but a sort of viceroy for the Father (his precise concept is somewhat problematic). Newton diligently sought the Creator through His actions, His work (creation) and His Word (the Bible). (Newton probably kept his non-orthodox views secret to refrain from disruptive controversies in the church.)
Newton believed in past miracles ("the sun standing still," however, he regarded as a poetic expression: Moses as a popularizer) and prophecies -- no longer needed. In general, he interpreted the Bible literally. (Among his effects upon death was a well-worn Bible (1660) -- now lost.) He performed meticulous exegesis of the Scriptures. He regarded Church history as of primary importance for understanding Christianity. An assiduous reader and an erudite historian (he knew Greek, Hebrew, and Latin), he examined scores of texts for corruptions and misinterpretations. His vehement anti-Catholicism stemmed from the initially political endorsement of Athanasius' creed and from the later biblical mistranslation by Jerome. He himself was convinced by the argument from design in its major features, not in minutiae; possibly a mystic in connection with his alchemical investigations, he always relied upon facts per se. Newton was a critical historian for his time, but he did have a fanatical belief in the writings of antiquity (e.g., a crucial fragment of Eudoxus). He was particularly attracted to the prophetic records of Daniel and St. John the Divine, which he regarded in agreement in the smallest detail. (Biblical prophecies, he felt, can be understood only ex post facto.) Newton's historical interests engaged his attention more than fifty years; his extant writings along this line are esoteric and scattered among numerous manuscripts. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalyse of St. John were published posthumously (1728). Together, in the accepted historical method of that time, they provide a chronology of world history, sacred and profane. Both the Principia and the Optics close with affirmations about God; the famous "Scholium" of the former is a passionate statement about the creation. As our idea of the universe expands, so, too, does our concept of God.
Newton was wholeheartedly committed to the commandments of the Bible (O.T. and N.T.)-in an absolute sense. Unfortunately, he envisaged God more as a just ruler than a Father of grace, love, and mercy. He lacked emotion, although he did record 58 sins about Whitsunday when he was 19. He minimized ritual, as well as dogma. (He did not seek the last rites of the Church.) He noted that there were many rites among the early Christians, but only one faith.
Although the Royal Society had many divines as members, in the spirit of Francis Bacon, it barred any public discussion of politics and of religion-presumably for the sake of unity. Privately, however, Newton recognized that we all live in one world, our Father's world.
He regarded religion and science as interrelated; science, indeed, the handmaiden of religion, its Te Deum-hence no fundamental conflict. In both he insisted upon a common mental approach, a foundation of facts, historical and natural. He corrected the death date (34) of Christ, and that of the Argonaut's search (956) and hence of Troy's fall, 904 (both about 3 centuries late by modern standards). His application of astronomical dating (eclipses, equinoctial precession, et at.) was revolutionary. He was, however, very much opposed to metaphysicians such as Descartes and Leibnitz, both in science and in theology. He looked upon history and nature as similar in that they both have latent secrets, both being actually simple and measurable.
Newton's whole life was dominated by religion, his search for the Creator of heaven and earth. Toward the end of his life he mused, "I do not know what I may appear to the world; but to myself I appear to have been but a little boy, playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself, in now and then finding a smooth pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."
Muhammad
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other persons named Muhammad, see Muhammad (name). For other uses, see Muhammad (disambiguation).
| A series of articles on | |
Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh (Arabic: محمّد; Transliteration: Muḥammad;[2] IPA: [mʊħɑmmæd̪]; 
pronunciation (help·info); also spelled Mohammed or Muhammed)[3][4][5] (ca. 570 Mecca – June 8, 632 Medina),[6] is the central human figure of the religion of Islam and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of God (Arabic: الله Allāh), the last and the greatest law-bearer in a series of prophets of Islam. Muslims consider him the restorer of the uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Noah, Jesus and other prophets of Islam.[7][8][9] He was also active as a diplomat, merchant, philosopher, orator, legislator, reformer, military general, and, according to Muslim belief, an agent of divine action.[10]
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,[11] he was orphaned at a young age and brought up under the care of his uncle. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Discontented with life in Mecca, he retreated to a cave in the surrounding mountains for meditation and reflection. According to Islamic beliefs it was here, at age 40, in the month of Ramadan, where he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn)[12] acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.[13][14][9]
Muhammad gained few followers early on, and was met with hostility from some Meccan tribes; he and his followers were treated harshly. To escape persecution Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in the year 622 CE. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the conflicting tribes, and after eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to ten thousand, conquered Mecca without bloodshed. In 632 a few months after returning to Medina from his Farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. By the time of his death most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam and he united the tribes of Arabia into a single Muslim religious polity.[15][16]
The revelations (or Ayat, lit. "Signs of God") which Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Qur'an, regarded by Muslims as the “word of God” and around which the religion is based. Besides the Qur'an, Muhammad’s life (sira) and traditions (sunnah) are also upheld by Muslims. They discuss Muhammad and other prophets of Islam with reverence, adding the phrase peace be upon him whenever their names are mentioned.[17] While conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and premodern times were largely negative, appraisals in modern times have been far less so.[14][18] Besides this, his life and deeds have been debated by followers and opponents over the centuries.[19 Read More..Barack Obama
aka Barack Hussein Obama, Jr. 
Read More..
(1961–)
Related Works
- Books
- 1995 Dreams From My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance
- 2006 The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream
- 2006 It Takes a Nation: How Strangers Became Family in the Wake of Hurricane Katrina
Breaking News: President Barack Obama heads to Florida on Tuesday (February 10, 2009) to rally support for his economic stimulus plan. Aides say Obama plans to hold a town hall meeting in Fort Meyers, Florida to open a dialogue with Americans hit by the recession.
Senate is scheduled to hold a final ballot on the $838 billion stimulus bill while Obama is on the road. Afterward, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner plans to unveil his bank rescue strategy. If the bill passes as expected, the Senate and the House of Representatives will enter into final negotiations on a compromise, with Obama arbitrating disputes.
Obama, who says the bill is crucial to preventing a complete "economic catastrophe," has told law makers that he wants the final bill on his desk by February 16.
Biography: Barack Hussein Obama was born Aug. 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii. His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was born of Luo ethnicity in Nyanza Province, Kenya. He grew up herding goats with his own father, who was a domestic servant to the British. Although reared among Muslims, Obama, Sr., became an atheist at some point.
Obama’s mother, Ann Dunham, grew up in Wichita, Kansas. Her father worked on oil rigs during the Depression. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he signed up for service in World War II and marched across Europe in Patton’s army. Dunham’s mother went to work on a bomber assembly line. After the war, they studied on the G. I. Bill, bought a house through the Federal Housing Program, and moved to Hawaii.
Meantime, Barack’s father had won a scholarship that allowed him to leave Kenya pursue his dreams in Hawaii. At the time of his birth, Obama’s parents were students at the East–West Center of the University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Obama’s parents separated when he was two years old and later divorced. Obama’s father went to Harvard to pursue Ph. D. studies and then returned to Kenya.
His mother married Lolo Soetoro, another East–West Center student from Indonesia. In 1967, the family moved to Jakarta, where Obama’s half-sister Maya Soetoro–Ng was born. Obama attended schools in Jakarta, where classes were taught in the Indonesian language.
Four years later when Barack (commonly known throughout his early years as "Barry") was ten, he returned to Hawaii to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Dunham, and later his mother (who died of ovarian cancer in 1995).
He was enrolled in the fifth grade at the esteemed Punahou Academy, graduating with honors in 1979. He was only one of three black students at the school. This is where Obama first became conscious of racism and what it meant to be an African–American.
In his memoir, Obama described how he struggled to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage. He saw his biological father (who died in a 1982 car accident) only once (in 1971) after his parents divorced. And he admitted using alcohol, marijuana and cocaine during his teenage years.
After high school, Obama studied at Occidental College in Los Angeles for two years. He then transferred to Columbia University in New York, graduating in 1983 with a degree in political science.
After working at Business International Corporation (a company that provided international business information to corporate clients) and NYPIRG, Obama moved to Chicago in 1985. There, he worked as a community organizer with low-income residents in Chicago’s Roseland community and the Altgeld Gardens public housing development on the city’s South Side.
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